[What about 'green energy'?
'Green' cannot and should not be ignored. But defining 'green' can be complicated given the range of mixed agendas, and I see no real 'resolutions' being widely accepted. Even if the industry transformed itself- becoming totally carbon-neutral, Planet Earth is still destined to be transformed by human activity in the next century. Even if you flood India, China, America and Europe with 'green' energy - the end result for global ecosystems and planetary resource supplies is NOT neutral. Asia's middle class consumption patterns will transform the planet- whether they get power from coal or solar. There are second and third levels of implications to sustainability that must be resolved after we create a CO2 energy industry. But that is a conversation for another post!]

Global demand is expected to double in the next twenty-five years. All aspects of the energy industry should expand. All ‘primary inputs’ (hydrocarbons, renewables, nuclear), all ‘conversion methods’ (biological, combustion, electrochemical) and all ‘carriers’ (electricity, hydrogen). Everyone grows…

Meanwhile groups and agendas compete for attention and emotions. Wind people dismiss clean coal; battery people dismiss fuel cells; others say expand nuclear before solar. And oil must deal with the most criticisms from energy independence folks and those watching the peaking of production. Adding to the confusion, there is still no agreement over timelines for expecting industry changing innovation or whether we pass a tipping point of climate change or managing resource depletion.

The most forward-looking strategies include greening hydrocarbons, commercializing bio energy, expanding renewables and nuclear, and pushing forward hydrogen fuel cells for transportation and micro-power markets. H2 packets could emerge as a ‘leap frog’ energy business model for delivering electricity to billions of people who are not connected to modern electricity grids.

So what breakthroughs happened in ’07 that could make this possible?

This is a longer more tech-science post of research advanced during 2007:

#1 Nano-bio Research / Bio-energy – nanowires plugged into hydrogenase, graphene sheets couple enzymes, controlling enzymatic activity, bio energy from bacteria/algae

#2 Nanostructured Catalysts – Fischer-Tropsch liquid fuels, green chemistry, biomimicry, role of carbon, Greening Hydrocarbons – desulphurization

#3 Growing Solar – Challenges to growth, photocatalysts for H2, artificial photosynthesis, graphene sheets and nanotubes, fundamentals of photosynthesis

#4 Hydrogen storage – advances in solid state storage (absorption/adsorption strategies); liquid carriers

#5 Hydrogen production with nanostructured catalysts (photo-, electro-, and bio-)

#6 Batteries – Real world challenges of ‘plug in’ battery vehicles

[Fuel cells - I am going to write a separate post on micro-fuel cells and vehicles…]

The future of energy is also Asia. For every Prius bought in America, tens of thousands of cars are purchased in Asia. For every solar panel put up in California, tons of CO2 come out of a new Chinese coal plant. Energy solutions must be priced to meet the new global middle class, not just thrive because of a ‘green’ premium for affluent Western consumers.

The future of energy is global integration and interdependence. We are not just trading ‘resources’ but knowledge and services. America’s energy industry should reap more profits from servicing a global market than retreating and only paying attention to our ‘energy security.’ It also seems much wiser to engage OPEC and Non-OPEC producing nations in economic activities beyond oil and natural gas, rather than try to isolate other economies and cultures. (I follow the leading wisdom of enabling global integration best framed by Thomas Barnett – author of the Pentagon’s New Map and Blueprint for Action.)

My goal is to help enable a mindset of energy abundance.

We are standing at the dawn of energy consumption, not the end. We cannot take our eyes away from the need to expand production and access to meet global demand.

What were the ‘big stories of 2008’ that went largely under the radar?

#1 – The Dawn of the Nano-bio interfaces & Bio-energy
There are few things in the world filled with as much potential than the nanoscale interface with biology. We are just beginning to understand (and interact with) the phenomena of life at the molecular level. And the implications of using biological processes in energy applications are profound.

The truth is that we still have much to learn about biological processes at the nanoscale. The challenges of human biotechnology applications are much more complicated than those which await us in using bacteria and algae in energy production. The bio energy industry should emerge as major force in the next century.

And it begins at the molecular level. In February Duke researchers announced a breakthrough in understanding protein electron-transfer chemistry based on quantum behavior. But that was just the beginning of a breakthrough year:

A) Self assembling molecular wires connect to energy specific proteins
Scientists at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (Golden, CO) [and Montana State University], have demonstrated a nano-biohybrid system which connects single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) as wires to the catalytic reaction center of hydrogen-breathing enzymes (hydrogenase). The result is – ‘a catalytically active biohybrid system in which ‘the conductive nanotubes shuttle electrons from hydrogenase molecules as they drive hydrogen-based chemical reactions.’ ‘Allowing us to control the catalytic reaction.’ [PDF- Paper link – ‘Wiring up hydrogenase’]

Why is this important?
The ability to control catalytic reactions at the nanoscale is, as they say, ‘a game changer’. Bio-hydrogen energy systems could re-write (microbial) fuel cell technology and hydrogen production. One of the keys to evolving hydrogen producing enzymes is to limit the flow of oxygen into the production center.

B) Using (carbon) graphene sheets to bridge ‘coupled enzymes’
In November, another bio-hybrid proof of concept was announced the University of Oxford (U.K.) by chemists who created a new type of catalyst ‘by attaching two redox enzymes to a microscopic flake of graphite. The system could be tailored to catalyze a range of reactions’ [Via RSCorg]

Why is this important?
It confirms our ability to improve catalysis – opening up new opportunities for coupled enzymes that function in novel ways. Combining two types of systems could lead to more efficient production of energy or uses in agriculture/petrochemicals (nitrogen for fertilizers). In particular it is good news for graphene sheet applications in the bio world. Graphene is a single layer of carbon and a relative new comer to nanotubes, so we have room to innovate as we discover new applications.

C) Nanobioelectronic System that Controls Enzymatic Activity
Keep your eye on researchers at the Arizona State University Biodesign Institute. I have written about their work on several occasions in my Research Notes. This news comes from the lab of Dr. Joseph Wang (Director of the Center for Bioelectronics and Biosensors). His team has taken an important step in nano-bioelectronic system used in bioelectrocatalytic transformations [Via Nanowerk, a favorite site!]

Why is this Important?
It shows the potential of nanomaterials in ‘triggering enzyme (protein) activity’ – useful in biomedical applications, bio-electronics and bio-energy (bio fuel cells, hydrogen production, solar)

D) Business world embraces bioenergy solutions
I believe ‘bio energy’ is going to emerge as the new ‘era’ of energy production – changing how we look at energy production in the next century. (Post here)

Big news makers include LS9, Amyris Biotechnologies, and Synthetic Genomics (of Craig Venter fame. I am a big fan of Venter’s voice on bio energy) Lesser known but potentially as disruptive – Mascoma Corporation, Eirzyme (Ireland), OPX, Agrivda, Iogen, Vernium, et al. Chevron and Shell seem most engaged in partnerships, but I would not expect the other majors to sit back for too long.

- Shell is partnering with Codexis on biofuel enzymes (biocatalysts) trying to develop ‘super’ enzymes to convert biomass to fuel- important as the biofuels industry seeks non-food solutions. Shell Hydrogen LLC and Virent Energy Systems, Inc. recently announced a five-year joint agreement to further develop and commercialize Virent’s BioForming technology platform for hydrogen production.

- A Canadian company, CO2 Solution, has created a technology that uses carbonic anhydrase enzymes to process the carbon dioxide. Gases from a smokestack enter a water solution in their bioreactor cylinder. The solution flows around a packing material in the cylinder that has the enzymes secured to its surface. The enzymes extract the carbon dioxide so that it can be stored or converted into bicarbonate, an environmentally safe product, or other useful bi-products….”
Link from Nanoarchitecture.net

They are all trying to solve complex biological processes. But our knowledge is expanding and research is accelerating. I am ‘long’ on bio-energy.

#2 World of Catalysts – ‘Greening of Hydrocarbons’
Our modern world does not exist ‘because’ of oil, electricity or agriculture, it exists because we have studied and learned to harness chemical reactions and related catalysts that transform raw resources into usuable forms. (e.g. fertilizers enabled the mid 20^th century ‘green revolution’; polymer age of hydrocarbons)

There are a few relevant aspects of catalysts:

• The first relates to catalyst design. Geometry matters. Performance is often based on shape which dictates surface area. We are just now starting to develop nanostructured catalysts that re-write efficiencies and cost structures of key energy reactions by taking advantage of the unique aspects of nanoscale material volume to surface ratios.
• The second area is the role of bio-catalysts which we are only now applying in energy systems based on engineering principles.
• The third area is our expanding catalog of catalysts – there are entire classes of materials (inorganic/organic) yet to be synthesized, and types of bio-catalysts yet to be discovered.

A) Responding to Peak Production – Placing bets in world of liquid fuels via Fischer-Tropsch
Even the Wall Street Journal is saying on their front page: While we are ‘not running out of oil’, we are likely to see the “peak production management of existing petroleum resources.” That means, those who have reserves are not just going to increase production to meet rising demand. Instead they will manage production in order to hold onto their reserves longer. It is a simple, logical decision. I see no point in blaming oil producing nations or companies . But this has very serious implications to global economic activity.

Until we are able to leap into an era of electron-based energy (delivered via electricity/hydrogen), liquid fuels will continue to dominate the transportation industry. And, barring a major economic slowdown leading to decreased demand, we are certain to have extremely ‘tight’ oil markets for the next twenty years.

To make up the gap in liquid fuels we are turning more towards biofuels. Beyond biofuels, we can also turn towards an old idea of creating ‘synthetic’ fuels. In this world of synthetic fuels, there is nothing as important as Fischer-Tropsch (FT) conversion which takes hydrogen and carbon monoxide from coal, methane, biomass- and turns it into liquid fuels. (Again, biology might offer an alternative, but let’s not assume a breakthrough)

Who cares about Fischer-Tropsch? China.

‘According to the International Energy Agency, China’s overall energy demand will grow by 3.2 percent per year between 2005 and 2030. Coal, which currently makes up about 70 percent of the energy needs of Asia’s second largest economy, is expected to continue to play a central role.’ The news…

- In December, Chinese chemists (Peking University) announced a Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process using an ‘unsupported ruthenium’ catalyst that was more active and ran at lower temperature than traditional catalysts – ‘iron and cobalt on carbon or silicon dioxide supports’. This means lower cost. The story is more complicated than that, but it certainly represents a step forward. [Via RSC.org]

B) Getting closer to ‘bio-plastics’ and ‘green chemistry’
Despite the emphasis on ‘everything going digital’, the material world still matters. As China and India expand their middle class, we are going to produce material goods- most of which will be built from core polymers derived from natural gas/petroleum which face tremendous uncertainty related to supplies and costs due to environmental regulations.

‘Green’ chemistry’, including the world of biomaterials/bio-plastics, holds the long-term promise for moving us beyond petrochemical-based chemical foundations. The news…

- In November 2007, German researchers announced their efforts to turn fatty acid derivatives (taken from oilseeds) to make diesters useful in constructing polyesters and polyamides. (Via RSC.org)

C) Catalysts that mimic biology
Catalysts fall into different categories – and one with the most potential for the next century are classified as biocatalysts – which offer significant advantages in terms of molecular selectivity driven performance.

- In 2007, researchers from Scripps Research Institute, created a chemical system inside an inorganic cavity that to match the selective catalytic abilities of (protein) enzymes. (Article on ‘click chemistry’ vision.)

Other notables:

- In February, Researchers at the Technical University Dresden announced a system using molybdenum disulphide (MoS₂) nanoparticles as a catalyst for producing sulphur-free fuels. (Via Nanowerk)

- In March 2007, researchers at Max Plankc Institute announced a graphene (sheets of carbon) that break the ‘stable bonds of CO2’ into carbon and oxygen atoms that could be used in synthetic chemistry to build ‘syn fuels’.

- Scientists search for low cost nanocatalysts (Delaware) Link from ScienceDaily

- MIT researchers use nanoparticles to decrease concrete related CO2 emissions (which account for ‘5 to 10 percent of global carbon emissions’ – (nice to see researchers thinking beyond oil – at energy saving opportunities in manufacturing…) (Via: Physorg.com)

#4 World of Solar-Hydrogen
Solar has momentum and should see significant commercial growth in the decades ahead. But the industry is certain to have its growing pains. Jim Juback has written a fantastic article on near term growth dynamics… a must read!

The mainstream media is now focused on two areas of solar – utility scale based (mostly solar thermal), and the emergence of ‘thin-film’ organic solar panels that are ‘printed’ onto polymer substrates and could replace rooftop materials. The blogosphere is filled with articles on these subjects. But the long-term play on solar is much more complicated and expansive- especially related to hydrogen production.

Regular readers to this blog will know that I believe electrons power the future. The ‘hydrogen economy’ is still a world powered by electricity. But it offers us a way of expanding the domain of electrons through high density packets (rather than streams connected to wall sockets.) I hold no delusions of H2 saving the world. Yet, believe that H2 offers some clear benefits to pure electricity and battery storage systems.

There were some fantastic developments in 2007 which did not make the mainstream media radar:

A) Photocatalysts offer direct solar to H2 production
German Researchers (Max Planck Institute) have discovered a ‘brand of silicide that can absorb hydrogen and release it at low temperatures and pressures.’ They used titanium disilicide (TiSi2), photocatalyst that splits water into oxygen and hydrogen – then absorbs the H2 which it releases when heated. The downside is the useable wavelength captured by the material – but innovation will continue! (Via PhysicsOrg)

B) Artificial Photosynthesis closer to market?
Details are not clear, but claims are being made by Phoenix Canada Oil, regarding its claims to manage a Virginia Polytechnic Institute derived patent, to generate low-cost hydrogen from water. (Via Reuters)

In 2004, Virginia Tech researchers announced a breakthrough in ‘artificial photosynthesis’ based on supramolecular complexes created by the Karen Brewer Research Group. Their process converts solar energy into hydrogen gas. I suspect, and hope, that this technology is at the center of the Phoenix claim, but cannot confirm!

C) Anticipating the solar materials commodity crunch – Carbon (Graphene) Sheets
Commodity minerals and precious metals are being squeezed by global economic development. Among the many things which could slow solar’s growth, the supply of key semiconductor/metal materials is high on the list. Crystalline photovoltaics based on traditional inorganic materials have seen spikes in prices and it is unclear how they will survive in a higher cost structure environment.

There are fears that indium supplies are dwindling with growth around LCD makers and solar cell makers gobble up supplies.

Enter carbon graphene sheets. Researchers at Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research have developed carbon graphene sheets for solar applications.

(Via – TGDaily; or New Scientist) [Keep your eye on graphene research at MIT, Princeton Rensselaer Polytechnic, Georgia Institute of Technology]

Other notables…
-Researchers at the Advanced Technology Institute of the University of Surrey, in collaboration with researchers from China and the USA, demonstrated a 100-fold increase in the light emission from a nylon polymer sample, by incorporating multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT).

-Researchers from New Jersey Institute of Technology are using single walled carbon nanotubes as junction points in solar cells… (Via PhysOrg)

-Spanish researchers get creative by ‘cutting’ carbon ‘buckyballs’ into electroactive polymers (Link )

-In April, researchers at Washington University in St. Louis described a photocatlytic cell that splits water to produce hydrogen and oxygen in water using sunlight based on a nanostructured catalyst (Link from Eurekalert . or Link from Physorg)

- UC San Diego researchers have created a membrane system that uses sunlight to create electrical energy that breaks up Carbon Dioxide (CO2) into carbon monoxide and oxygen. (Link from PhysOrg)

- Wake Forest researchers are making excellent progress on their ‘plastic’/organic solar cells. The team has jumped from 3-5% efficiency in 2005 to 6% in 2007. Applications vary but 10% is often discussed as the commercial threshold for organic photovoltaics – which promise cheaper solar power in more local environments (i.e. rooftops). (Link PhysOrg.com)

-Georgia Tech researchers created a 3D solar cell structure that is able to capture sunlight at any angle (regardless of the sun’s position) (Link from MIT Tech Review)

-There are no shortages of innovative ideas using quantum dots (MIT/Berkeley) and “nanoflakes” to improve solar.

D) Still asking fundamental questions of photosynthesis and light driven reactions.
- In May, researchers from Washington University in St. Louis (and Berkeley) announced breakthrough in understanding of quantum behavior of photosynthesis energy transfer inside protein structures. (Link from Eurekalert.org Link from Washington University St Louis)

- In November, European scientists revealed the molecular structures used by plants to protect themselves from intense sunlight. ‘The findings could be important for the development of solar energy systems, as well as helping agriculture.’ (Via RSC.org)

#4 Hydrogen Storage - ‘Holey Grail’
The future is powered by electricity – and hydrogen allows us to expand the domain of electrons in ways not currently possible given our current electrical grid system. ‘The Hydrogen Economy’ is really a world powered by electricity. Again, I hold no disillusions that hydrogen ‘saves the planet’. It merely expands the domain of electricity and gives us a new way of capturing, storing and delivering electron power. [Do not assume that the 20th century 'electrical grid' is the only way of delivering power to end users!!]

This past year (2007) was a wonderful period for hydrogen storage research and development- especially solid state systems and liquids that are H2 rich.

The key to solid state storage is based on a balance of properties – surface area to support high storage capacity at a low weight (preferably 8-10% wt; 60-80 g/L); reversibility using compounds that can release and reabsorb hydrogen under practical operating conditions; and of course – low cost and safety (non-combustive).

My own personal belief is that solid state storage becomes the preferred path forward. And the distribution infrastructure will be based around retail shelves or home production.

Shell developed a scenario back in the 1990s which featured ‘H2’ dispenser machines, where individuals would simply grab small ‘bricks’ of hydrogen and plug them into their vehicles. This notion was promoted this past year around the FST Fuel Cassette cartridge. Rather than pull up and grab a hose to refuel, you would simply exchange ‘bricks’ of solid state stored hydrogen and plug it into your vehicle. Simple, quick and low cost. The bricks are filled back up with H2 at a centralized station or locally through an appliance that is connected to a natural gas line or electricity grid.

We do not need to turn ‘gas stations’ into H2 fueling stations. I think we’d make more money turning gas stations into valuable retail stores and coffee shops. In other words, stop trying to fit a H2 infrastructure into gasoline’s infrastructure.

But I digress. Innovation please!

There is no shortage of chemical compounds to explore which could provide us with the best set of alternatives. There is still plenty of room left to innovate via discovery and synthesis. The pace of innovation is impressive.

- The ‘big’ announcement came in December when Ford Motor Company project researchers (UCLA) announced an autocatalyic technique using reversible metal hydrides (magnesium, lithium and hydrogen) with quick absorption and release operated at low temperatures and pressure. ‘The autocatalytic reaction mechanism was shown to be fast enough to enable hydrogen to be pumped into an automobile’s “solid” tank at speeds comparable to gasoline being pumped into today’s liquid tanks.’ (Via R. Collin Johnson at EETimes.com)

Metal hydrides are almost certain to lead the pack in terms of commercial applications. But long-term solutions are likely to come from other materials that are based on physical adsorption rather than chemical absorption.

Some fundamental research projects worth noting – each system has its upside and downside. It is too early to pick winners:

- UK researchers are looking at lithium hydride; Others are looking at lithium nitride fibers and lithium-boron nitride. Researchers at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) found an ‘unstable’ form of lithium borohydride which holds 19% of its weight content as hydrogen and releases this hydrogen at high temperatures exceeding 300° Celsius, a considerable drawback.

- Virginia Commonwealth University researchers are using lithium-coated ‘buckyballs’ (carbon nanotubes) with a storage density of 13% wt

- Canadian researchers have found a way to release hydrogen near room temperature without involving transition metals.

- Turkish researchers (Bilkent University) and a US group from the National Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST) are predicting that (titanium-)ethylene frameworks could hold 14 percent of the weight as H2.

- Researchers at Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory are using highly porous materials from polyanilin to soak up H2 at eight times higher than previous porous polyanilines

- UC Riverside researchers developed a new class of carbenes with ‘unusual, highly reactive carbon atoms’ – that can ‘mimic the behavior of metals. Called cyclic alkyl amino carbenes or CAACs, these organic molecules could be used to develop solid state carbon based systems for hydrogen. .( Link from PhysOrg.com)

-Graphene is at the earliest stages of research and modeling but could hold potential as a storage medium given the right doping partner compound.

- If I had to put my poker chips on one hand it would be MOFs (metal organic frameworks) that serve as a lattice network structure for physically (not chemically) absorbing hydrogen. MOFs are believed to have the highest surface area of any known substance. Early research was defined by Dr. Omar Yaghi at the University of Michigan. In December- new advances were announced from the University of Michigan (Matzger Group) regarding a new type of metal-organic framework (MOF) with exceptional structural properties. Then, Swedish research team (Ahuja Group) reported positive findings for hydrogen capacity using metal-organic framework-5 (MOF-5).

#6 - Hydrogen Production
Again, I hold no delusions that hydrogen saves the planet – or increases our energy independence. It certainly holds long-term potential for both, but my support for H2 is as an energy carrier used to expand the domain of electricity. It holds a much greater potential (than batteries) as a disruptive systems for powering portable devices and vehicles.

Hydrogen skeptics will often use misleading (and over-simplified) statements that ‘hydrogen takes more energy to produce than it yields.’ Ummm, it sounds like they are describing our electricity industry. Hydrogen critics like to throw around the word ‘truth’ as a scare tactic. But the ‘truth’ is that hydrogen production is a complicated issue and there is not an easy way to tackle it using one-liners! The ‘truth’ is that cost matters to the marketplace, not conversion efficiencies. But the short answer is ‘yes’ based on high school science class style electrolysis this is true. H2 is an energy carrier and based on laws of thermodynamics you will never get more energy out than what you put in.

But that same ‘law’ and ‘truth’ describes electricity production. Look at an energy flow chart – and you’ll see that our electricity system is grossly inefficient and wasteful. But you would laugh at historical statements in the early 1900s that ‘we should not pursue electricity because you don’t get as much energy out as you put in.’ The marketplace does not care about laws of thermodynamics. It asks – is it convenient and cheap? Does it improve performance? Does it expand consumption?

Hydrogen is technically a ‘carrier’, but functions as a fuel. Unlike batteries, we keep the oxidant and ‘fuel’ separate. This means high densities and a new market for selling H2 as a ‘fuel’ over retail shelves. So anyone in the world who can buy a bar of soap from a retail store, can also buy a high density packet of energy to refuel their fuel cell. What good are rechargeable batteries if you do not have access to a wall socket?

The other response to skeptics of production- is that it depends on what ‘input’ you are using, and the catalysts involved in the energy transformation. If our ‘input’ is nuclear or a renewable then who cares about the energy loss in H2 production if the end product is more valuable than a free floating electron. If our ‘input’ is CO2 and sunlight, then we could celebrate the energy loss involved. What if our ‘inputs’ are transformed via bacteria or algae? Instead skeptics talk of one method of producing H2- electrolysis. And they ignore advances in electrodes involved in that process.

H2 production is driven by catalysts – electro-, bio-, photo-catalysts. The key to their performance is reactive surface area, and the elimination of compounds (oxygen, carbon) that stop or slow down reactions. The other limitation is cost of precious metals, which has resulted in development of non-precious metal alternatives and support structures. Nanoscale design changes the efficiencies of H2 production via electrolysis. Here are examples…

- CalTech spin-off QuantumSphere – has developed a new iron-nickel coated electrode for cutting the price of making hydrogen. The company claims its catalyst has more than 2,000 times more catalytic surface area than standard electrodes coated with standard sized particles. The company claims ‘it can produce 2.4 kilograms of hydrogen in 25 minutes. Standard electrodes can take hours or days, he said. As a result, the Stingray can produce hydrogen at $2.50 to $9 a kilo…’ (Via CNET) (Video)

- Signa Chemistry is claiming high efficiencies, low cost using inorganic materials to ‘strip’ hydrogen from water.

- Ohio State University has a license agreement with American Hydrogen (of American Security Resources Corp.) for a system designed for high-volume, mass-producible hydrogen via ammonia. (Via Fuelcell works)

- Another team from Ohio State grabbed media headlines referring to the role of ‘eggshells’ in helping to facilitate the water-gas-shift reaction in hydrogen production based on reformation of hydrocarbons. The researchers claim that the eggshells help to soak up carbon dioxide reducing costs and environmental issues. (Via ScienceDaily.com)

- Chinese and US Researchers (from Georgia Institute of Technology) designed new platinum nanocrystals with “tetrahexahedral” structure that improves the efficiency of fuel oxidation processes (e.g. for fuel cells) and used in the production of hydrogen. The new shape improves the platinum catalyst performance and reduces costs for membranes. (… the 24-facet nanocrystals’ catalytic activity can be as much as four times higher than existing commercial platinum catalysts.’)

- Researchers at Argonne National Laboratory are using aerogels to clean up hydrogen. Important since hydrogen with excessive impurities (e.g. carbon) can corrode fuel cell membranes and decrease performance.

Hydrogen Production – Biological
We are just now uncovering the secrets to hydrogenase (protein enzymes that produce H2) H-clusters involved in hydrogen production. H-cluster-based reactions are slowed down by the presence of oxygen. Researchers will someday block these O2 pathways engineer hydrogenase (enzymes) with greater efficiencies. Today research goals vary from direct H2 production to H2 carrier liquids.

- In November, we saw the year’s ‘big story’ come from Bruce Logan’s lab at Penn State. Their team used bacteria in a microbial electrolysis cell fed on acetic acid. With the aid of a little electricity (.3 volts) the system produced hydrogen. Logan claims “This process produces 288 percent more energy in hydrogen than the electrical energy that is added to the process,” says Logan. “Water hydrolysis, a standard method for producing hydrogen, is only 50 to 70 percent efficient. Even if the microbial electrolysis cell process is set up to bleed off some of the hydrogen to produce the added energy boost needed to sustain hydrogen production, the process still creates 144 percent more available energy than the electrical energy used to produce it.”

- Virent (Madison, WI) “BioForming” technology enables the economic production of hydrogen, among other fuels and chemicals, from renewable glycerol and sugar-based feedstocks. (Partnership with Shell)

- Researchers from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Colorado are trying to design a protein that would permit hydrogen to bubble out without letting oxygen in.

- Researchers at Virginia Tech, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), and the University of Georgia are testing ‘polysaccharides, or sugary carbohydrates, from biomass to directly produce low-cost hydrogen’… By using a ‘combination of 13 enzymes’ the team converts polysaccharides and water into hydrogen. ‘A car with an approximately 12-gallon tank could hold 27 kilograms (kg) of starch, which is the equivalent of 4 kg of hydrogen. The range would be more than 300 miles…’ One kg of starch will produce the same energy output as 1.12 kg (0.38 gallons) of gasoline.’ when and where that form of energy is needed. (Via VT News)

[My note - I tend to advocate solid state storage of H2; and also prefer to maintain a pure H2 systems rather than do on-board conversions, or H2 rich liquid fuels. But this is phenomenal research from schools with very strong energy innovation programs!]

- Japanese researchers discovered a highly efficient hydrogen production system based on cellulose – via ‘dry grinding’ (mechanochemical processing) (Via)

- Argonne chemists are evolving natural gas reformation by using “single-site” catalysts based on ceria or lanthanum chromite doped with either platinum or ruthenium to boost hydrogen production. (Via)

- In April, researchers from the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) and Kyushu University (Japan) used a ruthenium complex with sulfur ligands to ‘rip up hydrogen bubbled through water at room temperature.’ (Link)

- Hydrogen Production from Sunlight –
Interview with MIT’s Daniel Nocera. … we still need to “figure out is the reaction chemistry on how to split water to hydrogen and oxygen. We don’t know how to do that yet, even though plants do it every day. We can do the hydrogen part pretty well, but we still have no idea how to get the oxygen out – and you want to do that because you want a closed thermodynamic cycle. You want to be able to give somebody a gallon of water in the desert, make hydrogen and oxygen, and then have it recombine in a fuel cell to get water back again.”

- Italian scientists are using sunlight-powered cells with platinum and titanium dioxide electrodes to split water in hydrogen and oxygen. (Via RSCorg)

- In July, Penn State University’s Craig Grimes Research Group, announced that it is “only a couple of problems away” from developing an inexpensive and easily scalable technique for water photoelectrolysis – the splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen using light energy’. Using ‘thin films made of self-aligned, vertically oriented titanium iron oxide (Ti-Fe-O) nanotube arrays that demonstrate the ability to split water under natural sunlight.’ [Editorial - TiO2 (titanium dioxide) has long been admired for photo-driven H2 production, but limited by the limits ultraviolet spectrum. This Penn State team is trying to evolve the system using iron in the mix. It is still a lower conversion rate, but worth watching]

H2 production – metal alloy catalysts
Finally a widely reported H2 production story was from Jerry Woodall’s group at Purdue using a aluminum-water reaction. This technique is being developed in other labs and by private companies such as Hydrogen Power, Inc. which claims its AlumiFuel(TM) results in a 60% increase in hydrogen generation yields and a 45% reduction in fuel production costs. (Via Money/CNN)

- I suspect Samsung has a similar system developing in its labs. Reports claim a three watt micro-fuel for mobile devices based on water. [My ‘hype’ watch is on with this chemistry, but watching!]

[Note on Fuel cells--- I am going to post a separate entry on fuel cells….]

#6 World of Batteries
Of course, I have not forgotten about batteries. I just do not believe we should be too focused on their development.

Generally speaking, the blogosphere is skeptical of hydrogen fuel cells and micro fuel cells based on methanol (et al). Many eco-bloggers prefer short-term fixes and tend to follow the emerging agenda of new ‘green venture capitalist’ voices of Silicon Valley who prefer batteries.

I find it ironic that batteries, the power system despised by electronics makers who hate the inconvenience of ‘plugging in’ and lack of energy density, are Silicon Valley’s great ‘play’ for saving the planet and transforming the automobile industry. Silicon Valley’s poster children start ups are Tesla, EEstor and Fisker.

I agree that electric motors are the key to innovation, but side with automobile engineers who believe that electric motors must utilize batteries, fuel cells and capacitors to become commercially feasible. All three systems together win. Batteries alone cannot change the auto industry. You can however, build some expensive models for people in California to drive.

Additionally, I believe the ‘ease’ of ‘plugging in’ electric cars is vastly overstated. I cringe every time someone says ‘the plug in infrastructure exists.’ Yes, we have electrical infrastructure in place (at least all over the US/Europe), but it is not designed to support national vehicle fleets. Tapping that power to recharge vehicles could cripple the electrical grid. Beyond that, how many people park their vehicles (at night or during work) next to an appropriate plug? What percentage of vehicles are actually parked inside a garage? The reality is that the infrastructure for ‘plug in’ battery vehicles would need to be expanded or built. And this would not be cheap or easy. And what about Asia? What does their ‘plug in’ infrastructure look like?! (Sarcasm intended..!)

Batteries also have too many short-comings in performance and safety. The chemistry of batteries is complicated and there are always trade offs based on toxicity, performance, structural stability, safety et al. The densities are awful and would take up more space in the vehicle chassis than auto manufacturers prefer. Their vision is to shrink the size of propulsion systems. Hence, their preference of fuel cells.

Finally, cars are not iPods. Grabbing electronics out of Li-on batteries takes time. Fuel cells are a better match for I.C.E. type performance.

But as a futurist, I must be open to alternatives. Only time will tell. Electric cars could certainly have a future- but the global auto industry seems to be clearly moving forward on FCVs despite the rhetoric from Silicon Valley.

At the same time I must admit – batteries are not likely to go away soon, and they should benefit from the nanoscale science era.

Despite the push for Lithium-ions in transportation, the market for portables is clearly shifting towards Lithium polymers, which are less likely to experience ‘thermal runaway’ and burn up!

- Researchers are using silicon nanowires to increase the capacity of lithium batteries

- Nickel hydroxide is used as a potential electrode in rechargeable batteries.

- NEC has filed a patent to use carbon nanotubes (nanohorns) as electrodes for supercapacitors. Link from TinyTechIP blog

- Rechargeable lithium based on coated nanotubes – Link from TinyTechIP Blog

- Nissan and NEC to develop batteries for automotive applications… (Link Alt Energy Blog)

- MIT readies ultra-capacitor… (a critical piece to the all-electric vehicle) Link

- Rice University SWNT battery membrane patent…(Link from TinyTechIP)

Ok, that is it!!! Until next year’s list…